Macroeconomics Review #2 |
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Measuring Total
Economic Activity Ch 8 The Business Cycle Ch 9 Macro Equilibrium Ch 10 Competing Macro Theories and Issues Ch 12 Keynesian Economics: An Expanded Review Ch 12 Money, Banking, and the Creation of Money Ch 13 AP 15 Min Macro Review Video
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Measuring Total Economic Activity Review
Chapter 8
The Business Cycle Review
describe the business
activity over time.
C.
Leading, coincidental, and lagging indicators
are measures such as the
unemployment
4. Causes of inflation
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Editors
Note: This section belongs at the end of the next section but I can't make
the spacing work! Sorry, No Front Page training, I just wing it!
F. Supply-side
economics
described three key
problems causing slow economic growth. |
1.
Laffer Curve 2. Lowering the tax rate from X to X' would increase tax receipts. a. Lower tax rate would lessen avoidance of taxes. b. Fewer transfer payments due to tougher welfare policies would result in more people working and paying taxes. c. Overall effect of the program would be higher productivity. This would increase AS causing GDP and tax revenue to increase. |
IV. Competing Macro Theories and Issues
View Entire Chapter 11 A. Classical economics 1. Dominated philosophically during the late 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries. 2. First defined by Adam Smith its primary beliefs were full employment was a norm of capitalism and Laissez-faire (hands-off) government policy was best. 3. Say's Law a. Supply created enough factor income to clear the market so inventories will not accumulate and a slow down to use excess inventory, which causes unemployment, was not necessary. b. Savings is not a leakage because interest rates adjust to insure saving is borrowed and invested (spent). 1) Leakage describes the loss of a variable required to maintain a state of equilibrium (stable level of economic activity). 2) Interest rates drop when savings increase to insure savings is invested and there isn't leakage. 2. Price-Wage flexibility a. During periods of slow economic activity wage rates would fall and everyone wanting to work could find work. b. All factor prices, not just wages, would adjust downward and all factors would be fully employed. "Real" factor prices would therefore remain constant. |
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B. Keynesian economics 1. Macro equilibrium could settle at an unacceptable level of unemployed resources and government intervention was needed to fully employ resources. 2. To some, The Great Depression discredited classical economics. 3. John Maynard Keynes wrote The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money (1936). a. Disagreed with Say's Law: savings may not be invested. 1. Interest rates are not the sole determinate of savings and investing. 2. Saving and investment are done by different people with different motives, may not be equal causing goods to go unsold and inventories to increase. 3. Saving is based upon "liquidity preference," the need to hold money a) Transactionary Motives: for every day use. b) Speculative Motives: save because prices may drop (Japan in late 1990's). c) Precautionary Motives: save due to uncertainty (when a recession is expected). 4. Investment decisions are based upon profit expectations and interest rates 5. Money balances (savings) are also important in determining aggregate demand. |
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b. Disagreed with price-wage flexibility: prices would adjust downward insuring all resources are fully employed. 1. Resource prices are inflexible downward meaning resource prices may not adjust and unemployment may persist. 2. Wages are sticky downward because of unions, monopoly power of corporations, and government policies. c. As a result, government involvement may be required to keep AD high enough to maintain full employment. 4. Manipulating equilibrium a. Classical economists didn't see a need as Real GDP was fixed.. b. Keynesian economists want to manipulate AD by changing C + I + G + XN to maintain noninflationary full employment.
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C
The quantity theory of money
1. Represents the basic theory behind macroeconomics prior to the Keynesian Revolution 2. Believed that changes in the money supply would only affect price and not economic activity. 3. The equation of exchange MV = PT Money Supply X Velocity of Money = Average Price Level X Number of Transactions a. Velocity of money is how often the money supply is spent. b. Number of transactions is real economic activity c. The equation is an identity 1. Dollars spent = dollars received 2. MV = Aggregate Demand and PT = Nominal GDP = C + I + G + XN = GDP d. Classical theory stated that V was basically stable and that there existed some natural level of growth for T. 1. This natural level was a function of individual and business interaction. 2. V and T were essentially unalterable which meant changes in M would change P and not the natural level of T. 3. Government should therefore refrain from interfering with market activity by adjusting the money supply. 4. Came into disfavor in the 1930's with the popularity of Keynesian economics which stated that real output could be changed by affecting aggregate demand. |
D.
Monetarism 1. Monetarists believe that changes in the money supply are both a necessary and sufficient condition to cause inflation. 2. If AD was low, increasing the money supply would only increase short-run economic activity. a Eventually short-term expansion stops and increasing M only adds to inflation. b. Public anticipation stops the process from being repeated. c. Monetarists believe that government involvement in the economy, especially monetary intervention, increases the magnitude of the business cycle. 3. Keynes believed changing the money supply would affect interest rates affecting investment affecting Real GDP 4. To some degree monetarism is an extension of classical economics. Advocates believe that a competitive market, free of government inter- ference, causing economic stability and a reasonable growth rate E. New Classical economics states market forces and not government. manipulation of aggregate demand and the money supply control economic activity. |
V.
Keynesian Economics: An Expanded Review C+ I + G + EN View Entire Chapter 12 Part 1 of chapter 12 A. Consumption and Saving 1. Average Propensity to Consume (APC) is consumption (C) divided by income (Y). a. APC = C/Y b. APC decreases as income increases as people can afford to save. 2. Marginal Propensity to Consume (MPC) is the change in consumption divided by the change in income. a. MPC decreases as income increases. b. This makes sense because when an average is falling, what is happening on the margin must be less. 1) Suppose your test average after one test is 90 and after 2 tests its 80. 2) Your second test had to be below 80 to pull the average down. Test 2 was a 70 and (90 + 70) / 2 = 80.
Note: Points on a 45-degree line equate values on the x and y axes |
3. Saving
(S) is income minus consumption. S = Y - C
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B. Investment is business spending on capital goods, inventory, and research & development. 1. The level of investment is a function of expected profit, interest rates, and the level of technology required to maintain a desired competitive position. 2. Investment spending tends to be somewhat volatile. C. Government Spending is assumed to be constant. D. Net Exports, exports minus imports, are also assumed to be constant for this simplified model.
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VI. Money, Banking, and the
Creation of Money
View Entire Chapter 13 A. Functions of money 1. Medium of exchange: facilitate exchange eliminating barter 2. Standard of value: allows for the pricing of heterogeneous goods. 3. Store of value: maintains value and provides liquidity so extra spending power is available as needed. 4. Standard of deferred payment: makes credit contracts possible so credit transactions are possible. B. The supply and demand for money 1. Three categories of the supply of money a. M1 = Currency, coins, and demand deposits (checking accounts). b M2 = M1 plus near monies such as small time deposits (savings accounts) and short-term government securities. c. M3 = M2 plus large time deposits (over $100,000) 2. What backs the dollar? a. It is a debt of the federal government. b. Backed by faith in the government's ability to control inflation. c. Value is determined by acceptability (it is legal tender and scarce). d. It's fiat (by decree of the government) money. e. Coins have little intrinsic value (a small % of face value), it's called token money. f. Commodity money such as tobacco used as money in the Virginia colony has intrinsic value of its own. |
C.
The Demand for Money 1. Transaction D, Dt, results because people hold money, often in a money market account, to use as a medium of exchange. 2. Asset Demand, Da, results because people accumulate money, often held in an investment account, to buy assets. 3. The demand for money Dm= D t + Da 4. Interest rates are set in the money market.
2. A sound monetary policy (not using inflation to pay the federal debt) |
E. United States private banking system 1. Two kinds of banks a. Commercial banks offer demand deposits (checking accounts) b. Savings and loan associations used to specialize in time deposits (saving accounts) and home mortgages. Now, because of dereg- ulation during the early 1980's, they are similar to commercial banks. 2. Federal deregulation contributed to banking difficulties in the 1980's. |
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F. The Federal Reserve 1. Organization A Board of Governors oversee the Federal Reserve System 1. Seven governors 2. Governors are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. 3. The chair is appointed by the President for a four-year term. a) To foster independence, the term does not coincide with the President's term. b) Other board members are appointed to 14-year terms on a staggered basis to insure an experienced board. B. Federal Open Market Committee 1. Membership consists of the Board of Governors and 5 of the 12 Federal Reserve bank presidents with the N.Y. president always a member because N.Y. City is the financial center for U.S. international trade. 2. The Committee tries to affect interest rates by affecting the supply of money by buying and selling U.S. government bonds (See Chapter 15). C. Federal Advisory Council 12 prominent commercial bankers, one from each district, who advise the Board of Governors D. Twelve Federal Reserve Banks 1. The United States is divided into 12 homogenous districts and each has its own bank |
b. Bank for the federal government c. Bank for member banks d. Graphic is complements of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. e. Member commercial banks f. Nonmember commercial banks and thrifts are regulated by other government agencies 2. Functions of the Federal Reserve a. Regulate the money supply b. Oversea the financial system c. Check collection and clearing d. Fiscal agent for the government e. Supervise (audit) member banks f. Hold reserves (deposits) for member banks g. Compile economic statistics such as the 2010 BeigeBook, which is a quarterly summary of each districts' recent economic activity. |
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Part 2 of Chapter 14
Aggregate Demand and Equilibrium
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B. If economic activity is not in balance, a dynamic situation exists and will continue until equilibrium is reached. C. Keynes believed that E could settle at a level of economic activity with large amounts of unemployment. 1. If potential Real GDP is greater than what actual AD yields, a recessionary gap exists and may persist indefinitely. The solution is to increase AD. 2. If potential Real GDP is less than what actual AD yields, an inflationary gap exists and the inflation may persist indefinitely. The solution to this unacceptable level of economic activity is to decrease AD.
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D.
Multiplier Affect (K) is important to determining the change in AD needed to reach equilibrium E. 1. Changes in AD will result in larger changes in NNP as increases are not spent and respent. 2. Decreases in AD have a similar but opposite affect. 3. K = 1/MPS = 1?(1-MPC) Note: As MPS increases, K decreases. 4. A MPS is 20%, Multiplier is 5 as 1/20% = 1/(1/5) = 1X 5 = 5
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